New century and late feudalism

The new century begins with discoveries and new knowledge in the field of science, technology, economy and, especially, by getting to know one's own planet. That is why Columbus' discovery of America (New World), 1492, is taken as the date of the beginning of the new century. Of great importance are many other geographical discoveries, as well as the appearance of the press, the improvement of war techniques, the progress of science and the reform of the church and spiritual life. The appearance of the press contributed the most to the progress of the human spirit and the literacy of the people, which in some parts of the world lasted from the middle of the 15th century until today. The credit for the invention of the press, around 1450, belongs to Johann Gutenberg. The Chinese knew about the printed book even earlier, but its reproduction and progress began with Gutenberg's printing house. People will write by hand, ie style (handle) and pen for a long time (until the advent of typewriters and computers), but books, especially church books (Bible), newspapers and other writings to be printed. The press has significantly improved education and schooling.

War technical discoveries predominated due to the use of gunpowder, with the help of which firearms, cannons and rifles were perfected, and later many other types of weapons. The superiority of the rifle bullet easily threw the medieval knight into oblivion. New weapons and new wars took far more lives than medieval wars. The development of science is stimulated by observations, experiments and the application of mathematics. Astronomers have contributed a lot to getting to know their own planet, above all that it does not have the shape of a plate, but that it is round, by studying the Earth and other celestial bodies. Among them, the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus stands out. He developed a detailed mathematical and astronomical model that shows how the Earth and other planets move around the Sun. Johann Kepler, Galileo Galilei, Giordano Bruno, Isaac Newton also made a great contribution to the development of science. They are accompanied by the development of philosophy as a science, led by Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes. The clock, binoculars and compass are being perfected, the construction technique is advancing, especially ships for long voyages (caravels).

 The great geographical discoveries

of Man's knowledge of the universe and of the Earth were very small. Europeans did not know about the American and Australian continents, and knowledge of Asia and Africa was poor. The need of Europeans for Eastern goods (spices, silk) was growing, and how much it was priced can be seen by the fact that pepper was as expensive as gold. A sea trade route to India had to be found. The Portuguese were the first to go in search. The exploration of Africa began at the beginning of the 15th century, and continued with Henry the Navigator, to Bartholomew Diaz, in the winter of 1487–1488. year, sailed to the south of the continent - the Cape of Good Hope. Africa was sailed by the navigator Vasco da Gama, and arrived in Calcutta, on the west coast of India, in 1498. The way to India was found, so the Portuguese continued to explore and conquer the neighboring islands - Borneo, Sumatra, Java.

Christopher Columbus' attempt to sail west to India led to a great and unexpected discovery. After studying the maps of that time and believing that the Earth was round, he set sail under the patronage of King Ferdinand of Spain and Queen Isabella. After crossing the Atlantic, he reached an island he named San Salvador (Holy Savior). Convinced that he had sailed to India, he called its inhabitants Indians. Columbus traveled to America three more times, and died believing that he had discovered India, and not a new continent - America. His geographical discoveries did not bring fabulous wealth to the Spanish court. The great sailor died disappointed, in misery. One country in South America is named after him - Colombia. 

The English and French soon joined the Spaniards and Portuguese in exploring the New World. The competition in new discoveries and knowledge began, but also the conquest of the newly discovered continent, America, and the conquest of the native population. The English king sent John Cabot, who reached the northern part of the American continent and discovered Newfoundland and Greenland. Frenchman Jacques Cartier surveyed the Canadian coast. The Portuguese Pedro Cabral reached the coast of Brazil (1500), and Amerigo Vespucci explored unknown areas of South and Central America (after him, all these areas were named). Vasco Nunez de Balboa, a lesser-known navigator and adventurer, was the first to see the Pacific Ocean (1513). Frenchman Jacques Cartier surveyed the Canadian coast. The Portuguese Pedro Cabral reached the coast of Brazil (1500), and Amerigo Vespucci explored unknown areas of South and Central America (after him, all these areas were named). Vasco Nunez de Balboa, a lesser-known navigator and adventurer, was the first to see the Pacific Ocean (1513). Frenchman Jacques Cartier surveyed the Canadian coast. The Portuguese Pedro Cabral reached the coast of Brazil (1500), and Amerigo Vespucci explored unknown areas of South and Central America (after him, all these areas were named). Vasco Nunez de Balboa, a lesser-known navigator and adventurer, was the first to see the Pacific Ocean (1513).

The greatest discovery after Columbus was made by the Portuguese navigator Fernando Magellan. With five ships and 265 sailors, he sailed the globe (1519–1522). After crossing the Atlantic, he sailed around South America, passing through the strait that was later named after him. He was killed in the Philippines, in a conflict with the natives, and only one ship with 18 people returned to Spain. This journey proved that the Earth is round.

 The English and French continued to explore and conquer North America, and the Spaniards and Portuguese continued to explore South America. The Spaniards were more aggressive than the Portuguese. Thus, the conquistador Hernan Cortes crossed from Cuba to Mexico and conquered it after the weak resistance of the indigenous population. Then Francisco Pizarro conquered Peru. The Spaniards easily enslaved the Aztec and Inca states and plundered their gold and silver, and then they forced the indigenous population to the hardest forms of work. Robbed, tortured, converted to Christianity and satirized by hard work, the Indians almost completely disappeared from most of the American continent. The Spaniards and Portuguese in South America, and the English and French in the North, began to bring in the African inhabitants by turning them into slaves. Apart from precious metals, Europeans imported corn and potatoes, llamas and turkeys from America, then unknown plant and animal species in Europe, and they transferred many European plants and animals (rye, cotton, horses, etc.) to the American continent. they began to bring in the African inhabitants by turning them into slaves. Apart from precious metals, Europeans imported corn and potatoes, llamas and turkeys from America, then unknown plant and animal species in Europe, and they transferred many European plants and animals (rye, cotton, horses, etc.) to the American continent. they began to bring in the African inhabitants by turning them into slaves.

 Apart from precious metals, Europeans imported corn and potatoes, llamas and turkeys from America, then unknown plant and animal species in Europe, and they transferred many European plants and animals (rye, cotton, horses, etc.) to the American continent.

The last continent, Australia, was discovered by Europeans in the middle of the 17th century. Australia was sailed by Dutch navigator Abel Tasman. 

Great geographical discoveries enabled Europeans to see all the expanses of the Earth, little or not known until then. Unfortunately, they also left negative consequences - the destruction of indigenous civilizations in both Americas and the beginning of African black slavery.

 Manufacturing

With the new century, Europe is experiencing population growth, especially in cities. The natural increase in population is reduced by wars, plague and typhus epidemics, and famine. The city and city life give a mark to the new age, although most Europeans will live in the countryside for a long time. At the beginning of the new era, the largest European city is Constantinople, which has more than 100,000 inhabitants, as well as Rome (the seat of the Pope and Catholicism), followed by Venice, Naples, Milan, Paris, London, Antwerp, Moscow. In the 17th century, Amsterdam suppressed Venice in trade, and Paris and London made rapid progress. Italy and Flanders are the most urbanized and industrialized areas of Europe. With the transfer of gold from America to Europe, the value of money dropped, so the prices of agricultural and handicraft products were extremely hig

The beginning of capitalist production is known as manufacture (Latin manufactura - handmade).

 Workers in manufacturing workshops did all the work by hand, perfecting only one type of work. Manufacturing developed especially in the Netherlands, then in England, France and Germany. The most famous manufactured products were made in cloth, silk, leather, shipbuilding, etc. Agricultural production, especially livestock, took on capitalist characteristics in England and then in other Western European countries. By "enclosing" the municipal morning, by buying or appropriating peasant land, the English nobility, which accepted bourgeois habits and the way of production, laid the foundations for the agricultural industry. The strengthening of cities affected the development of manufacturing, and its bearer was the bourgeoisie, then in its infancy. 

Production was improved by inventions: in textile production - automatic spinning machine, in metallurgy - metal melting. Labor is increasingly being replaced by wind and water; the "water engine" (water wheel) was invented. Undoubted progress was brought by the invention of the steam engine in the 17th century, but its improvement and revolution in production came in the 18th century. Since then, the machine industry has been suppressing manufacturing.