Magic in the Ancient World

For the Greeks, witchcraft (mageia or goeteia) was a broad subject, including incantations and ominous prayers (epodai), cursed tablets (katadesmoi), healing drugs and deadly poisons (pharmaka), amulets (periapta), and powerful love potions (philtra). In the ancient world, the distinction between magic, superstition, religion, science, and astrology was not as clear-cut as it is in the modern world. This mysterious, all-encompassing art of magic was practiced by expert magicians, both male and female, to help people help themselves in their daily lives and overcome obstacles that hindered their happiness.

The first of Mageia's practitioners, sorcerers, were, at least to the Greeks, the Magi Priests (magoi) of Persia; They were seen not only as wise bearers of the unknown, but also as masters of different fields such as mathematics and chemistry. Associated with death, divination, and evil, sorcerers were undoubtedly feared, and their lives in the slums of society meant that cultivators were often poor and in need of help to survive.

(This 2,000-year-old scroll is covered with mysterious words in Aramaic. Miomir Korac/Archaeological Institute)

Magic in Greek Mythology

Magic shows itself in ancient Greek mythology and the figures it is associated with are; Hermes is Hecate (goddess of the moon and sorcery) and Circe. Circe is also the witch-daughter of Helios, who specializes in magical herbs and potions and helps Odysseus summon spirits from Hades. Legends abound in tales of magical potions and curses. As an example of this; Hercules died horribly after his wife Deianeira took the magical blood of Nessos, a centaur, and spilled it over Hercules' cloak. When he put on the cloak, Hercules was badly burned and later died of his wounds. Magic has also been practiced by many fictional characters, probably the most famous being Medea from the tragedy play of the same name by Euripides.

In the Greek world, magic did not belong only to the privileged, nor was it only for the poor and ignorant. We know that the official inscriptions were built by the city-states to protect the city against possible disasters. There were also cases, as in Teos in the 5th century BC, when the state sentenced a man and his family to death for convicted witchcraft (pharmakadeleteria). In another example, a woman named Theoris, who lived in the 4th century BC, was sentenced to death for witchcraft and witchcraft and distribution. Clearly, the authorities viewed magic as a practice with various consequences, and it did not belong at all to the world of the lowly peasants. Admittedly, some intellectuals recognized the potential for abuse of magic, like Plato, who wanted to punish those who sold enchantments and cursed tablets. Epicurean and Stoic philosophers were also among those fighting to eradicate magic.

The Egyptians long used spells (best described as a list of instructions to follow) and incantations written on papyrus, and the Greeks continued this tradition. The history of Greek papyri, which was written about magic and survived, dates back to the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. These included instructions on how to circumvent physical ailments, improve sex life, exorcism, deworming the home, as part of initiation ceremonies, and even how to make your own amulet. Recipes and poisons, often using exotic ingredients such as rare herbs and spices and incense from faraway Asia, also often emerged.

Curses (agos, ara, and euche) were intended to restore social order by threatening behavior that was harmful to society with magical punishment, especially for crimes such as murder. It was also seen as a way of harming one's enemies. Cursed tablets were often in the form of metal (usually lead) plates on which the curse was engraved, and then rolled up or folded, sometimes sealed with nails, and buried underground, in tombs, or wells. Sherds, papyrus and limestone fragments were similarly engraved in writing. Figures made of wax or clay were made to resemble the victim of the curse. They would have their limbs tied or bent and sometimes nailed or buried in a miniature lead coffin. As a point of interest, while sorcerers in mythology are mostly women, curse tablets and records of spells often point to a male practitioner. Cursed tablets were often used to turn arguments in one's favor. The earliest record of these dates back to the 6th century BC and includes business deals, relationship problems, legal disputes, matters of revenge, and even sports and theater competitions. There are instances in Greek literature where an entire family or dynasty was cursed, probably the most famous being Oedipus and his descendants.