Anubis, the Egyptian god of the dead.

Anubis, the jackal-headed Egyptian god, is often referred to simply as the god of the dead. Although he was certainly associated with death and the underworld, his role was much more complex than this epithet might suggest.

In fact, the specific role of Anubis was constantly evolving in Egyptian religion. His first duty was to rule and protect the dead, and changing priorities in the culture soon gave him a much more specialized role.

Anubis is best known today not as a god of death in general, but as the god of mummification. By making the first real mummy, he became the expert at preserving the dead so they could reach the afterlife in almost pristine condition.

Without the services and protection of Anubis, souls would be forever trapped in the space between life and death. How he got this role and how he fit into the broader beliefs of ancient Egypt is a story that spans more than 3,000 years of recorded history.

Archaeological evidence shows that Anubis was probably one of the first recognizable gods to emerge in the Egypt of the early dynasties.

This period, spanning from approximately 3100 to 2686 BC, marked the beginning of a culture that would thrive for more than 3,000 years.

First Dynasty carvings show a jackal-headed god who is almost definitely the forerunner of Anubis. In Egypt, it can be said with almost certainty that these early images of jackals were associated with death.

Evidence has shown that even before the First Dynasty, jackals were associated with the dead. Pre-dynastic Egyptians buried their dead in relatively shallow tombs on the edge of the desert. There, they were easy targets for scavengers, including wild canines.

Egyptian culture, however, believed that the problem was best fought with the same force that caused it. Therefore, the best protector of the dead was one in the image and likeness of the animals that rummage through their remains.

Images of the jackal god as protector of the dead can therefore be found in early Egyptian culture.

In the time of the Greeks, this god was known in the local language as Anpu. It was written in the Greek phonetic alphabet as Anubis.

The jackal-headed god existed throughout the three millennia of Egyptian culture, meaning it took on different roles and meanings over time.

In the First Dynasty he was considered the chief god of death and the dead. The evidence of the images of the time shows that he was considered as the ruler of the underworld and the main guardian of the dead.

The episode not only incorporated Anubis into the new death cult of Osiris, but also gave him a new role in Egyptian culture.

Anubis became the god of embalmers and, as the practice grew, mummification. He was the patron of those who prepared bodies for the journey to the afterlife, a practice that was both a physical task and a religious ritual.

He also kept his position as guardian of the dead, although it took on a new meaning. Instead of guarding those already in the Underworld, Anubis protected those still being prepared to make the journey.

Many Egyptian tombs therefore included prayers to Anubis carved around their doors and inside. These prayers on behalf of the dead were expected not only to protect the soul on its journey to the afterlife, but also to protect the tomb from being looted and damaged.

The Birth and Abandonment of Anubis.

In general, Egyptian religion seems to place relatively little emphasis on the origins of its gods. Unless succession was an issue, as in the case of Osiris and Horus, these varied greatly over time.

Initially, Anubis was the most powerful son of Ra, the sun god, who later became powerful in the underworld, being the pre-eminent deity of the early Egyptian dynasties.

Eventually, however, another of Ra's sons became more widely revered throughout Egypt. Osiris became not only the archetype of royalty, but also a god of life and death.

By 2000 BC, Anubis's birth story had changed to reflect the fact that he was now much less powerful than Osiris. The story that emerged around this time is the best known and most detailed of his birth and continued to be told until the 1st century AD, when Plutarch recorded his thoughts on Egyptian mythology.

In this version of the myth, it is strongly implied that Set and Nephthys married like Osiris and Isis. Although this is often suggested, a relationship between them is never made clear.

This myth made Anubis the older half-brother of Horus. However, as Osiris and Isis were not married, Anubis did not threaten Horus's position as heir.

In an alternate version of this story, Anubis was actually the son of Set rather than Osiris. When Horus, the son of Osiris by Isis, regained his uncle's throne, Anubis accepted his authority and lived peacefully under his rule.

As time went on, the origin stories of Anubis and the other gods became more varied rather than less. Alternative myths named him the son of the cat goddess Bastet, a true son of Isis, or, in the Greco-Roman era, an alternate version of Hermes.

Titles and epithets of Anubis

• "Lord of the Necropolis"

• "Lord of the Sacred Land"

• "Lord of the Holy Country"

• "Lord of Rosetau"

• "He who is on his mountain"

• "Cave Lord"

• "He who presides over the divine chapel"

• "The one in the embalming chamber"

• "Lord of the Embalmers"

• "The one on the bandages"

• "He Who Counts Hearts"

• "The Lord of Nubia"

• "The one who eats his father"

The reference to Anubis as "he who eats his father" recalls both his role as a scavenger and a hair-raising aspect of the mummification process. Some records say that embalmers ate small pieces of the body's internal organs in a ritual of remembrance, perhaps inspired by the scavenging origins of their patron god.

Epithets of Anubis

With the many roles he played throughout the long history of Egyptian mythology, Anubis also came to be known by many titles and epithets.

Many of them are recorded in other languages, allowing us to clearly decipher the poetic language and noble titles given to the embalming god.

Others, written only in hieroglyphics, can be discerned through our knowledge of that system. By comparing them with other pictographically written phrases and titles, scholars can decipher their meaning even if the spoken language is unknown.