Alexander The Great in Ancient Egypt.

Alexander III of Macedon, most commonly known and referred to as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He was also a member of the Agread Dynasty. He was born in Pella, Greece in three-hundred-fifty-six BC and succeeded his father Pilliph II to the throne at the young age of twenty. In his youth, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle himself, in exchange for Phillip II rebuilding Aristotle’s hometown of Sageira, (1). He spent most of his ruling years possessed on his manifested odyssey. Leading a military campaign through the known world. By the age of thirty, he had created arguably one of the largest empires of the ancient world. From Greece, to northeast Africa, to India, all the way East to China (Asia Minor). Most of his campaign came against the Persian empire of Darius III. He was undefeated in every battle he stepped foot into. Alexander is widely considered one of history’s most successful military commanders, (2).

Shortly after his stop in Gaza, Egypt. Alexander marched west along the seacoast over the ancient caravan route. This took seven days (3). Moving over one hundred and thirty miles to Pelusium. He spent several months in Egypt as part of his on-going campaign against the mighty Persian Empire of Darius III. He had recently conquered Persian naval bases along the coastline of Asia Minor and Syria-Palestine. He took what is commonly considered an eccentric deviation. Though, Alexander’s Egyptian sojourn was essential to his future plans. He needed a strong coastal base. Serving as both strategic and commercial purposes, he could communicate across the Mediterranean, and deal with lucrative sea-borne trading networks that he desired from Phoenicia. With such naval reinforcement following his progress down the cost, his Macedonian army covered the hazardous one-hundred-thirty mile journey in merely a week. This was to reach the thickly fortified coastal town of Pelusium in the late October of three-hundred-thirty-two BC, (4).

His reputation had moved swifter than he had physically journeyed. As he was met by Egypt’s Persian governor Mazaces. With an empty arsenal at his disposal, coming after Darius’s departure shortly after recent defeat, Mazaces had only the option to simply hand over the treasury’s resources and possessions, (5). In return, he was kept on as one of the new administration with the other new governor Cleomenes, who was given responsibility of finances and helped produce the new royal mint around three-hundred-thirty-one BC, (Fig.1). Cleomejes was a stubborn, unscrupulous businessman that swiftly amassed a personal fortune during his time as governor. Yet he had remained loyal to Alexander, who he kept up a regular communication with. Sending him such prizes and delicacies. Such as smoked quail, by the thousands. After installing a garrison at the key defensive location of Pelusium, Alexander gave the order to his men to sail south, down the Nile River to the capital of Memphis, (6). At the Delta he would arrive through land at the lead of his men. His time in Egypt left noticable impressions on both him and his troops. After all of the stories and tales of Egyptian gods that his mother Olympias told a younger Alexander, (7). Stories that left religion as a major impact on his entire life. So when he had passed through sites like Heliopolis (religious site), he was completely in awe. With its many rituals, white temples, and obelisks. Also as a place where priests held a majority of power. Holding their power inside of temples made for entities larger than humans. He had been gleaming at sight and scale of the Pyramids of Giza. These pyramids had, at the time, still covered in white limestone, (8). After all of this, he had finally reached Memphis with a mind like a sponge. Any bit of Egypt stook on him like a stain of wine on a white t-shirt. 

Greek travelers had actually visited Egypt long before, many of which had set up trade, colonies or even began lives as mercenaries. Others, like historian Herodotus or philosopher Plato had arrived for study of culture. A culture which they described with awe as the beginning of civilization and society. They described it as such during their tutelage of the young king. Though, for nearly two-hundred years Egypt had Persian influences integrated in their society. As Persia had snatched it into its growing empire. Assuming the Egyptian crown as a right with the conquest of the Persians. They had been using its vast grain exerts and reserves, while taxing the people. The Persians had given little to no respect to Egyptian tradition, culture and general society. Being deemed quite unpopular amongst the people. The Egyptians had rebelled against such power enough, which could describe its relationship to the Persian empire similarly to America and Dominican Republic, with such independence, (9).

Therefore, Alexander was greeted warmly and claimed a Liberator by the people. Claimed as the people’s choice and legitimate heir, he had been offered the crown of some lands. A month or so into his time in Egypt, the people have given him the title of Pharaoh in Memphis, of November of three-hundred-thirty-two BC, (10). The highpoint of his crowning came when the high priest had claimed him as the “Son of the Gods.”. This is a title that had deeply affected and influenced him. As references to his mother Olympias calling him the son of Zeus must have filled his mind, and ego, as his coronation was held. Certainly, there were even scenes of the king of gods Amun, who Alexander deeply equated to Egypt’s Zeus, had impregnated selected queens with his seed. Seeds that would lay claim to Zeus’ throne as king of all men. In a reality where gods were seen as living amongst the people, and considered a part of how life existed: Alexander must have really fed into the ideas, thoughts, and rumors of his own destiny as less fiction and idea, and embedding it more so into divine destiny, (11).

Alexander had always been a devout man. Starting his days with sacrifices to the gods. He had no problems with worshipping the Egyptian deities. Thinking their gods as his own, he worshipped the Egyptian amun as a form of Zeus, his true icon. At the Memphis necropolis of Sakkara was offering sacrifices to the Apis bull. This form of bull was a cult animal of the creator god Ptah. This followed with the Greek-esque gamers and literary competitions, where competitors from all of Greece would engage in multi-cultural festivities. These sort of happenings marked the first motion towards the merging of Hellenism with Greek practices and traditions amongst the culture. This is when Greece and Egypt would coincide for over the next three-hundred years, (12).

As he was eager to commence intellectual investigation of philosophy that was believed to have originated in Egypt, Alexander engaged himself to lectures from Egyptian philosopher Psammon. Alexander was eating it up. Completely in agreement of how “All men are ruled by god, because in every case that element which imposes itself and achieves mastery is divine.”, (13). Though, Alexander referenced to his own encounters by mentioning that while God is indeed the divine creator, “It is the noblest and best whom he makes his own.”, (14).

In the proceeding two months Alexander had lived amongst the Egyptians as “Son of God” in the royal palace at Memphis, he spent his time studying the laws, customs, and culture of Egyptian society with his own eyes, (15). He ordered projects of restoring centers for religious intent amongst the cities. Projects included the great southern temples Luxor and Karnak. Where he is presented in the company of the Egyptian gods. Wearing traditional Egyptian regalia and garments that the gods would be presented in. Such as the ram horns of Amun, which would eventually be worn by his predecessors. Future leaders such as Amenhotep III. The image presented of Alexander would be spread all across the lands and deserts of Egypt. Among monuments, statues, sculpture, and other fine architecture. All of this, entangling his Greek, born name translated into hieroglyphs approved by royal cartouche, (16).

“Horus, the strong ruler, he who seizes the lands of the foreigner, beloved of Amun and the chosen one of Ra-meryamun setepenra Aleksandros.”, (17).

Alexander would eventually depart from Memphis in three-hundred-thirty-one BC. Sailing the western direction of the Nile River. Venturing to the Greek trading colony of Naucratis. This perspective of the land gave no grand hope of development and further growth. Which led Alexander to continue his journey towards the coast. Closer to Rhakotis, (18).

Previously discussed by Herodotus and Thucydides, this was close to Lake Mareotis, (19). Where a narrow ridge had divided water from the Mediterranian sea. After taking a look at Homer’s “The Odyssey”, the site had been mentioned as “Out of the seas where it breaks on the shores of Egypt rises an island from the waters: the name men give it is Pharos.”, (20, 21). He had noticed how Homer was quite a clever city planner. Along with his many accomplishments. Alexander had taken observation of the further, deeper waters and how it was very covered it was. Or its resemblance to another location, in Tyre, (22). He had been set on getting a city to prosper in this location. He had the enthusiasm and anticipation to jump right into working on getting the city going near immediately. Even taking it upon himself to design the very layout of the city. Positioning even the martk space, the very temples and which gods would be served in such temples. Gods of both Greek and Egyptian influence. He had even put estimations for the defenses the city would have. Alexander had worked with Deinocrates of Rhodes. Deinocrates was a trained architect. Alexander also collaborated with Numenios, and an advisor named Hyponomos. Alexander also had the idea in plans to create the royal palace. Working in some complex system of plumbing, in some form. Being with drains, and sewers. This was far ahead of its time. Over fifteen-hundred years before modern cities such as London having sewer issues that infested the city with disease. What foresight, (23).

With Alexander’s impatience, there were no current ways of marking out the ground and getting started. Until someone suggested the use of barley flour from the rations of the soldiers, (24). They utilized the flour by sprinkling it on the ground as Alexander directed the path along roads and avenues that he had in mind. The men inserted the flour in the form of a shield. Protecting the architects as they followed behind. Tragedy had eventually struck. Comically, flocks and flocks of birds gradually descended and devoured the plans to his new, great city, (25). Alexander had found that his fears were shortly deflected. His soothsayer Aristander had assured and guaranteed that the city would only thrive. Eventually producing fine agriculture. Bring sustenance to its citizens. Sort of in the fashion that the flour brought to the birds, (26). 

At the time of planning his entry into the Mediterraanean sea, he had also been given the great news that: Cyprus, Rhodes, Phoenicia, and the Aegean islands of Tenedos, Lesbos, Kos, and Chios all had come around and wanted to join under his reign, (27). This had come to his door delivered with their Persian sympathizing leaders. Delivered to Alexander to be served justice by his hand. Alexander continued to dispatch the former leaders South towards the Green garrison of Aswan, (28). This was accompanied by Callisthenes. Callisthenes had been sent by Alexander southward to continue investigation on theories of Aristotle on how the flood of the Nile River had come as a result of rainfall from the South. Which flew to the North, resulting in the floods, (29). 

With having finally chosen the prime position for his city, king Alexander then set motions to begin construction of his new city. Giving it the same name he had given many other cities he had begun over his long, epic conquest, Alexandria, (Fig 2), (30). With all this in motion, Alexander had begun to march out West, along the coastline road to Paraetonium in later January of three-hundred-thirty-one BC. Alexander would leave the vast majority of his armies in Egypt. This body of people had included his friends, his companions, and local guides there. During his vast, two-hundred mile march West towards Libya, Alexander received word from messengers from Cyrene, a Greek colony, pleading allegiance to the king. This was delivered with extravagant gifts and presents, (31). Presents that included over three-hundred horses and a crown made of gold. Once done there, the king then moved South to follow the ancient caravan route to the northern point of the Sahara Desert. This connected the Mediterranean coastline to central Africa with the network of oases. The one that pertains to this story is the oasis at Siwa. It was home to the world famous Oracle of the god Amun (Amun is the Libyan version of Ammon). Amongst many other famous men of the time, Alexander intended to pay the Oracle a visit, (32). 

Shortly, after journeying through the sands, the men began to be burning through their water reserves. Only barely being saved by a rainstorm. Being hailed as a divine intervention by Callisthenes, a historian brought to join the journey. The man faced many sandstorms that crept on them from the South. Demolishing any trace of their path to where they are at this point. Along with erasing any landmarks. With land barren as far as they could see, with nothing to give them direction within sight, the guides emplored for the young king to back track. Warning of how close the men are to their fates. Giving warnings of a time ago. A time when even Persian forces of Cambyses, (Fig 3), a vast army of over fifty-thousand men had been eviscerated by the exact same circumstances. Having been absolutely lost in the desert, and was never seen again. This came in their attempt to reach the Oasis of Siwa only two-centuries before this same journey, (33, 34).

The warnings came abundantly. Though, as a common tale of his own Odyssey to eventually liberate the entire possible world, Alexander had only one goal, one direction in mind: Forward. Some men later wrote how fortune had infested and deceived him to believe that fate was just laying stepping stones in front of him to just step over. That every obstacle the king would face can and should be overcome. Every enemy can be slain, and that his will is unshakable, let alone breakable. With everything that was said to happen to them, every leap taken, it yet again is leaped over successfully. Disaster, and death even, had been averted. The sign of success the men saw came when two black ravens miraculously came within their view. Alexander had exclaimed to his men to follow the birds. As there has to be a survivable location that the birds presided from. Callisthenes had even noted how the birds had, for some reason, stayed within site and range of the men. As if they were some sort of accommodating party. Even chirping if the men had started to deviate from what ended up being the correct path, (35). 

With such a feat, the legend, the myth of Alexander had only exploded beyond previous heights. Finally accomplishing such a feat only fed into the ego and self-assurance of the young king. Only pouring gasoline into the fire of his momentum. With tales of this feat spreading like wildfire through his current, and future empires. Tales of his divine, persistent will to just make it happen. It’s even rumored that his own men, once sceptile, not proclaim him as The Son of God himself. (36)

With each hurdle leaped, each battle won, each enemy slain, every obstacle overcome, and even eluding death, the complete assurance he sought out would be only confirmed about his divinity upon arrival to the Oracle, (Fig 4), (37).

Finally, upon arrival to Siwa, essentially limping their way into the sight, the eyes of the men soon were filled and flooded with the vast sights of beauty the place had. How fertile it was. Truly something out of a movie. Shady groves, fruits, trees, green everywhere and even bordered by gushing bodies of water. They refresh themselves and regain their previous sanity, and stabilize themselves. With no warning or word of the men previously given to the people of the oasis, there was surely great curiosity of their origins from the vast desert. As they are in the presence of the very first Pharaoh to ever complete this deadly journey, (38).

Very anxious to finally meet the oracle as soon as possible Alexander immediately went to the temple of Amun, its location on the high rock outcrop of Aghhurmi deeply impressing him. Alexander was met by the Siwan high priest. Who greeted the king by calling him his son. But it is believed that he had mispronounced the Greek king with ‘Oh son of god.”, when it was intended to have said merely ‘Oh my son’.  The few members of his party had awaited him in the courtyard of the temple, and once done, the high priest announced to all around that god himself was here and content. They presumed the questions. One of the men asked the Oracle whether about honoring the king, the Oracle then said that, that would please Ammon. After other questions, Alexander was led alone to the darkness to personally ask the gods themselves questions, (39).

When he had emerged from the dark, he was met by his men with anxiety. The men wanted to know what went on and happened. Alexander could only be bothered to say that the answer he got, was the answer he had desired. That the main thing discussed had been the origin of his divinity and that the only person who he would willingly confide what completely happened would be his own mother, Olympias. He told her through a letter that he would tell her face-to-face once his journey had been complete and he had returned to Macedonia. It is alluded that he had been proclaimed a god. Upon overhearing Alexander asking the Oracle whether the death of his father Phillip II’s death has been given justice. It is said that the Oracle had corrected him. Saying something in the sense of how his father was not able to die. How his father was not a mortal. It’s possible that he also sought divine approval for his new, grand city. Regardless of what the questions were, Alexander got his answers. He enjoyed them so much that he gave presents to the Oracle, (40).

Over the remaining eight years of his life, Alexander would send frequent gifts to it’s priests. These also came with further questions. Though, they were always eager to answer those questions. Alexander had never questioned the Oracles. Never. Even asking them for guidance and advice at times. According to Ptolemy, his general and biographer, Alexander then returned to Memphis from Qattara Depression. Upon arrival, he made sacrifices to Zeus-Amun. He held grand parades as well. He then sent five-hundred Greek mercenaries, and four-hundred Thessalian cavalry back to Macedonia, (41).

Alexander made his final orders for the government of Egypt in his absence. As mentioned, Alexander had greatly been influenced by every aspect of Egypt. Everything had been greater than what he expected. The strength influenced him to eventually split the control over it among his officers upon his eventual death. As it was too great for one man. Alexander left Egypt in the spring of three-hundred-thirty-one BC as a changed man. Though he would never return to this city that he founded alive, it would eventually be his final known resting place when his embalmed body was taken there to be buried ten years later, (42). 

Bibliography-

1. Abbott, Jacob. New York and London, Harper & Brothers Publishers. Makers of History: Alexander the Great. (1882): 169-188

2. Cummings, Lewis V. Houghton Mifflin Company- Boston. Alexander the Great (1940): 188-205.

3. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Egypt: Alexander the Great (2012).Tour Egypt. http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/alexanderthegreat.htm. Accessed March 1st, 2020. 

4. Homer. Collier. The Odyssey. (1909): 354-355.

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Endnotes-

1. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 1.

2. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 1.

3. Cummings. 188.

4. Cummings. 189.

5. Cummings. 189.

6. Cummings. 190.

7. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 3.

8. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 3.

9. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 4.

10. Cummings. 191.

11. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 5.

12. Cummings. 191.

13. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 7.

14. Cummings. 192.

15. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 7.

16. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 7.

17. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 8.

18. Cummings. 193.

19. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 10.

20. Homer. 354-355.

21. Cummings. 194.

22. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 10.

23. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 10.

24. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 11.

25. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 11.

26. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 11.

27. Cummings. 197.

28. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 12.

29. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 12.

30. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 13.

31. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 13.

32. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 13.

33. Abbott. 182-183.

34. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 14.

35. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 15.

36. Cummings. 198.

37. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 16.

38. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 17.

39. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 18.

40. Cummings. 202.

41. Alan M. Flides and Dr. Joann Fletcher. Paragraph 19.

42. Abbott. 277.

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List of Illustrations-

Fig 1.

Coin that depicts Alexander with traits of Zeus-Ammon

http://ancientheroes.net/blog/alexander-the-great-zeus-ammon. Ancient Heroes. “Alexander the Great and the Secrets of Zeus-Ammon”.

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Fig 2.

Map of Alexandria, Egypt

https://scholarship.rice.edu/handle/1911/9303. Baedeker, Karl. "Egypt, handbook for travellers. pt. 1. Lower Egypt, with the Fayum and the peninsula of Sinai" (K. Baedeker: Leipsic, London, 1885): 208b.

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Fig 3.

Cambyses II in Egypt

https://www.tota.world/article/928/, Cambyses II and Egypt. TOTA, Connecting People Through Culture. 

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Fig 4.

Replica Sculpture of Zeus-Ammon

http://ancientheroes.net/blog/alexander-the-great-zeus-ammon. Ancient Heroes. “Alexander the Great and the Secrets of Zeus-Ammon”.