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is seen in is seen in 1$ quadrupeds, e.g. cows or dogs. The two pairs of limbs are, therefore, built on the same basic principle. Each limb is made up of a basal segment or girdle, and a free part divided into proximal, middle and distal segments. The girdle attaches the limb to the axial skeleton. The distal segment carries five digits. Table 1.1 shows homologous parts of upper and lower limbs. However, with the evolution of the erect posture in man, the function of weight-bearing was taken over by the lower limbs. Thus the upper limbs, especially the hands, became free and gradually evolved into organs having great manipulative skills. This has become possible because of a wide range of mobility at the shoulder. The whole upper limb works as a jointed lever. The human hand is a grasping tool. It is exquisitely adaptable to perform various complex functions under the control of a large area of the brain. The unique position of man as a master mechanic of the animal world is because of the skilled movements of his hands. Table 1.1: Homologous parts of the limbs It has been seen that the upper limb is made up of four parts: (1) Shoulder region; (2) arm or brachium; (3) forearm or antebrachium; and (4) hand or manus. Further subdivisions of these parts are given in Table 1..2 and Fig. 1.1. 1 The shoulder region includes: a. Thepectoral or breast region onthe front of the chest; b. The axilla or armpit; and c. The scapular region on the back comprising parts around the scapula. The bones of the shoulder girdle are the clavicle and the scapula. Of these, only the clavicle articulates with the axial skeleton at the sternoclavicular joint. The scapula is mobile and is held in position by muscles. The clavicle and scapula articulate with each other at the acromioclavicular joint. 2 The arm (upper arm or brachium) extends from the shoulder to the elbow (cubitus). The bone of the arm is the humerus. Its upper end meets the scapula and forms the shoulder joint. The shoulder joint permits movements of the arm. 3 The forearm (antebrachium) extends from the elbow to the wrist. The bones of the forearm are the radius and the ulna. At their upper ends, they meet the lower end of the humerus to form the elbow joint. Their lower ends meet the carpal bones to form the wrist joint. The radius and ulna meet each other at the radioulnar joints. The elbow joint permits movements of the forearm, namely flexion and extension. The radioul:rar joints permit rotatory movements of the forearm called pronation and supination. Lr a mid-flexed elbow, the palm faces upwards in supination and downwards in pronation. During the last movement, the radius rotates around the ul:ra (seeFrg.10.23). Upper limb 1. Shoulder girdle 2. Shoulder joint Lower limb Hip girdle Hip joint 3. Arm with humerus Thigh with femur 4. Elbow joint Knee joint 5. Forearm with radius and ulna Leg with tibia and fibula 6. Wrist joint Ankle joint 7. Hand with Foot with a. Carpus a. Tarsus b. Metacarpus b. Metatarsus and c. 5 digits c. 5 digitsis seen in quadrupeds, e.g. cows or dogs. The two pairs of limbs are, therefore, built on the same basic principle. Each limb is made up of a basal segment or girdle, and a free part divided into proximal, middle and distal segments. The girdle attaches the limb to the axial skeleton. The distal segment carries five digits. Table 1.1 shows homologous parts of upper and lower limbs. However, with the evolution of the erect posture in man, the function of weight-bearing was taken over by the lower limbs. Thus the upper limbs, especially the hands, became free and gradually evolved into organs having great manipulative skills. This has become possible because of a wide range of mobility at the shoulder. The whole upper limb works as a jointed lever. The human hand is a grasping tool. It is exquisitely adaptable to perform various complex functions under the control of a large area of the brain. The unique position of man as a master mechanic of the animal world is because of the skilled movements of his hands. Table 1.1: Homologous parts of the limbs It has been seen that the upper limb is made up of four parts: (1) Shoulder region; (2) arm or brachium; (3) forearm or antebrachium; and (4) hand or manus. Further subdivisions of these parts are given in Table 1..2 and Fig. 1.1. 1 The shoulder region includes: a. Thepectoral or breast region onthe front of the chest; b. The axilla or armpit; and c. The scapular region on the back comprising parts around the scapula. The bones of the shoulder girdle are the clavicle and the scapula. Of these, only the clavicle articulates with the axial skeleton at the sternoclavicular joint. The scapula is mobile and is held in position by muscles. The clavicle and scapula articulate with each other at the acromioclavicular joint. 2 The arm (upper arm or brachium) extends from the shoulder to the elbow (cubitus). The bone of the arm is the humerus. Its upper end meets the scapula and forms the shoulder joint. The shoulder joint permits movements of the arm. 3 The forearm (antebrachium) extends from the elbow to the wrist. The bones of the forearm are the radius and the ulna. At their upper ends, they meet the lower end of the humerus to form the elbow joint. Their lower ends meet the carpal bones to form the wrist joint. The radius and ulna meet each other at the radioulnar joints. The elbow joint permits movements of the forearm, namely flexion and extension. The radioul:rar joints permit rotatory movements of the forearm called pronation and supination. Lr a mid-flexed elbow, the palm faces upwards in supination and downwards in pronation. During the last movement, the radius rotates around the ul:ra (seeFrg.10.23). Upper limb 1. Shoulder girdle 2. Shoulder joint Lower limb Hip girdle Hip joint 3. Arm with humerus Thigh with femur 4. Elbow joint Knee joint 5. Forearm with radius and ulna Leg with tibia and fibula 6. Wrist joint Ankle joint 7. Hand with Foot with a. Carpus a. Tarsus b. Metacarpus b. Metatarsus and c. 5 digits c. 5 digitsis seen in quadrupeds, e.g. cows or dogs. The two pairs of limbs are, therefore, built on the same basic principle. Each limb is made up of a basal segment or girdle, and a free part divided into proximal, middle and distal segments. The girdle attaches the limb to the axial skeleton. The distal segment carries five digits. Table 1.1 shows homologous parts of upper and lower limbs. However, with the evolution of the erect posture in man, the function of weight-bearing was taken over by the lower limbs. Thus the upper limbs, especially the hands, became free and gradually evolved into organs having great manipulative skills. This has become possible because of a wide range of mobility at the shoulder. The whole upper limb works as a jointed lever. The human hand is a grasping tool. It is exquisitely adaptable to perform various complex functions under the control of a large area of the brain. The unique position of man as a master mechanic of the animal world is because of the skilled movements of his hands. Table 1.1: Homologous parts of the limbs It has been seen that the upper limb is made up of four parts: (1) Shoulder region; (2) arm or brachium; (3) forearm or antebrachium; and (4) hand or manus. Further subdivisions of these parts are given in Table 1..2 and Fig. 1.1. 1 The shoulder region includes: a. Thepectoral or breast region onthe front of the chest; b. The axilla or armpit; and c. The scapular region on the back comprising parts around the scapula. The bones of the shoulder girdle are the clavicle and the scapula. Of these, only the clavicle articulates with the axial skeleton at the sternoclavicular joint. The scapula is mobile and is held in position by muscles. The clavicle and scapula articulate with each other at the acromioclavicular joint. 2 The arm (upper arm or brachium) extends from the shoulder to the elbow (cubitus). The bone of the arm is the humerus. Its upper end meets the scapula and forms the shoulder joint. The shoulder joint permits movements of the arm. 3 The forearm (antebrachium) extends from the elbow to the wrist. The bones of the forearm are the radius and the ulna. At their upper ends, they meet the lower end of the humerus to form the elbow joint. Their lower ends meet the carpal bones to form the wrist joint. The radius and ulna meet each other at the radioulnar joints. The elbow joint permits movements of the forearm, namely flexion and extension. The radioul:rar joints permit rotatory movements of the forearm called pronation and supination. Lr a mid-flexed elbow, the palm faces upwards in supination and downwards in pronation. During the last movement, the radius rotates around the ul:ra (seeFrg.10.23). Upper limb 1. Shoulder girdle 2. Shoulder joint Lower limb Hip girdle Hip joint 3. Arm with humerus Thigh with femur 4. Elbow joint Knee joint 5. Forearm with radius and ulna Leg with tibia and fibula 6. Wrist joint Ankle joint 7. Hand with Foot with a. Carpus a. Tarsus b. Metacarpus b. Metatarsus and c. 5 digits c. 5 digits

is seen in is seen in 1$ quadrupeds, e.g. cows or dogs. The two pairs of limbs are, therefore, built on the sameis seen in is seen in 1$ quadrupeds, e.g. cows or dogs. The two pairs of limbs are, therefore, built on the sameis seen in is seen in 1$ quadrupeds, e.g. cows or dogs. The two pairs of limbs are, therefore, built on the sameis seen in is seen in 1$ quadrupeds, e.g. cows or dogs. The two pairs of limbs are, therefore, built on the sameis seen in is seen in 1$ quadrupeds, e.g. cows or dogs. The two pairs of limbs are, therefore, built on the sameis seen in is seen in 1$ quadrupeds, e.g. cows or dogs. The two pairs of limbs are, therefore, built on the sameis seen in is seen in 1$ quadrupeds, e.g. cows or dogs. The two pairs of limbs are, therefore, built on the same