Muslim Titles: Caliph, Sultan, Vizier

In my articles about Egypt, I refer to rulers as Caliph or Sultan,or a chief officer as Vizier. It can be confusing to some readers what these titles really mean, so I want briefly to explain the history behind them.

(The lead image is a detail from a painting by Cristofano dell'Altissimo, an Italian painter who lived 1525-1605. The painting is from 1552-1568. It is named "Saladino" and depicts the Egyptian-Syrian Sultan Saladin. It is hardly any portrait, however, rather an interpretation. The real Saladin most certainly did not look as in this painting.)

Caliph & Caliphate

The word "caliph" stems from Arabic khalīfah [خَليفة], meaning "successor" or "deputy". In Islam, it occurs in the sense of “khalīfa rasūl Allāh”, meaning "Deputy of God's Messenger", a title worn by the Prophet Muhammed's successor as the leader of all Muslims. The title existed from the year 622, when Abu Bakr adopted it as he succeeded the Prophet Muhammed, and until 1924, when it was abolished by Kemal Atatürk. Subsequent attempts to re-establish a caliphate (title and jurisdiction of a caliph) have never gained general recognition.

From the beginning, Sunnites and Shi'ites had different views on what was required for someone to be a caliph. For the Sunnites, the view was that he should be elected according to some procedure; for the Shi'ites he must be a descendant of the Prophet Muhammed.

In practice, historical caliphates have been hereditary within different dynasties and there have been occasions with several rival caliphates at the same time. All caliphates have been Sunni Muslim except the Fatimid Caliphate, which was a Shia caliphate.

The following historical caliphates are usually reckoned with:

Rashidun Caliphate 632–661. Immediate successor of the Prophet Muhammed.

Ummayyad Caliphate 661-750.

The Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad (750–1258).

The Abbasid Caliphate of Cairo (1261–1517).

The Fatimid Caliphate (909-1171).

Ummayyad Caliphate of Cordoba (929-1031).

Almohad Caliphate (1121-1269).

The Ottoman Caliphate (1362-1924).

Sultan & Sultanate

Sultan, originally Arabic sulṭān [سلطان] is a Muslim ruler title of different dignity. It has been held by both rulers of imperial status and small local rulers, such as today's Malaysian Sultans. The word sulṭān means "strength" or "authority" and is ultimately derived from sulṭāh, "power".

The land and dignity of a sultan is called Sultanate, in Arabic Saltanah [سلطنة].

The world's first sultan was Mahmud Ghaznavi (979-1030). He was the Ghaznavidian Sultan in Ghazni, in Afghanistan, from 998. Mahmud Ghaznavi conquered parts of India and is considered as the founder of the Indian Delhi Sultanate.

This painting by the Persian artist Kamal-ud-din Bihzad (about 1450-1535), shows Mahmud Ghaznavi (in red), the world's first sultan. (Image in the Public Domain.)

In Egypt, the Sultanic title was held by the rulers of the Ayyubid dynasty, rulers of the two Mamluk dynasties, and by two members of the dynasty of Muhammad Ali: Hussein Kamil (Sultan of Egypt and Sudan), 1914-1917; and Fuad I (Sultan of Egypt and Sudan), 1917 – 1922. (Below, a photo of Hussein Kamil. In the Public Domain.)

The title of Sultan is limited to Muslim monarchs and it has a certain religious notation. From the beginning it denoted a sovereign, that is, a ruler with no overlord. All Muslim rulers before Mahmud Ghaznavi had formally been the Caliph's vassals. The title of Sultan implies that there is no such vassalage.

When a sultan changes his title to king, which has happened in some cases (such as in Egypt), he marks a change of his position to one of a secular nature.

Vizier

Vizier (which can sometimes be transcribed differently e.g. “vizir”, "vazir", "wazir", ...), was and is a title in some Muslim kingdoms, but probably originated in Sassanid Persia, that is Persia before the Muslim conquest (which took place in 636 AD). The adviser to the Sassanid king, was entitled wazir. Later the title was used about high-ranking advisers to a Muslim monarch, such as a Caliph, Shah, Sultan, Emir, etc. Often about people who stood between the sovereign ruler and his people.

In Ottoman Turkey, the Sultan had a Divan, a group of advisers who served as government. All of them included the title of vizier, and the leader of the Divan was the Grand Vizier. A kind of prime minister.

Wazir is still the Arabic word for minister, and it is used in various forms as such in many Arabic-speaking and Muslim countries. So in Egypt as well.

There is an alternative derivation of the word, which leads back to Arabic "wazara" which means "to carry a burden". The word is found in the Qur'an, where Aaron is described as Moses' wazir, here in the sense of helper. In the Qur'an there is also the word wizr, which means "burden". Both words can be derived from the Semitic word stem WZR.

It is therefore impossible to say for sure whether the word has an Indo-European (Persian) or a Semitic origin. As can be seen, there is support for both views.

In Egyptology, the modern rendering of old Egyptian tjaty - a chief officer serving Pharaoh, in much resembling a prime minister - is “vizier”. This, however, does not imply that the word existed that far back in time.

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