Most studies addressing social media use as a normal social behavior with positive or negative effects on health-related outcomes have conceptualized and measured social media use and its effects in terms of dose–effect relations. These studies focus on measuring frequency and duration of use, and have seldom considered users’ emotional connections to social media use and the effects associated with such connections. By using a scale with two dimensions capturing users’ integration of social media use into their social routines and their emotional connection to the sites’ use, the present study has brought preliminary evidence that may help map where social media use, as a normal social behavior, may be considered beneficial or harmful. Data from a nationally representative sample (n = 1,027) of American adults showed that while routine use is associated with positive health outcomes, emotional connection to social media use is associated with negative health outcomes. These associations have been consistent across three health-related outcomes: social well-being, positive mental health, and self-rated health. The data also showed that the strength of the positive and negative associations of routine use and emotional connection with the health outcomes varies across socioeconomic and racial/ethnic population subgroups. Our findings suggest that the link between social media use and health may not only be captured by and explained in terms of conventional dose–effect approaches but may also require a more sophisticated conceptualization and measurement of the social media use behavior.
Keywords measurement, social media
Social media use is an ever-increasing phenomenon of the 21st century. In the United States, about 7 of 10 individuals use social media to connect with others, receive news content, share information, and entertain themselves (Pew Research Center, 2018). According to a recent study, young individuals pervasively use social media for a variety of reasons including entertainment, identity formation, social enhancement (augmenting offline social status through online interactions), and maintaining interpersonal connections (Ifinedo, 2016). Such uses may hold promises to compensate for the diminishing face-to-face social interaction and the economic, social, and health outcomes resulting from it (Antoci, Sabatini, & Sodini, 2015). Studies suggest that social media can provide individuals with a platform that overcomes barriers of distance and time to connect and reconnect with others and thereby expand and strengthen their offline networks and interactions (Antoci et al., 2015; Hall, Kearney, & Xing, 2018; Subrahmanyam, Reich, Waechter, & Espinoza, 2008).
Social networks, particularly offline networks, enable individuals and communities to form and maintain social capital, which allows individuals to draw on resources such as information and social support from other network members (Viswanath, 2008). In other words, individuals who are members of a social network, as opposed to those who are not, have access to information, social support, and other resources such as other network members’ skills and knowledge due to their network membership or social connections. This, in turn, is linked to a variety of positive social outcomes such as trust and reciprocity that engender better health (Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007; Nabi, Prestin, & So, 2013; Nieminen et al., 2013). Different forms of social capital, including social ties, have been positively related to indices of psychological well-being, such as self-esteem and satisfaction with life (Bargh & McKenna, 2004; Ellison et al., 2007; Helliwell & Putnam, 2004; Nabi et al., 2013). Researchers now argue that online social media networks enhance the opportunity to form and/or maintain offline social capital (Ellison et al., 2007; Steinfield, Ellison, & Lampe, 2008; Valenzuela, Park, & Kee, 2009). For example, Ellison et al. (2007) found that apart from the bonding (within a group) and bridging (across groups) forms of social capital, online network tools enable people to remain in touch with a social network after physically disconnecting from it and thereby benefit from a form of social capital called maintained social capital. They found empirical support for this among university students and argued that Facebook use might also be beneficial for users experiencing low self-esteem and low life satisfaction (Ellison et al., 2007; Steinfield et al., 2008). Similarly, Valenzuela et al. (2009) found that intense Facebook use is positively associated with students’ life satisfaction, social trust, civic engagement, and participation. A study by Kim and Kim (2017) also indicated that social media use is positively associated with college students’ communication network heterogeneity, which, in turn, is positively related to social capital and subjective well-being.