Nature , in the broadest sense, is the natural, physical, or material world or universe . "Nature" can refer to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science . Although humans are part of nature, human activity is often understood as a separate category from other natural
The word nature is derived from the Latin word
natura , or "essential qualities, innate disposition", and in ancient times, literally meant "birth". [2] In ancient philosophy, Natura is mostly used as the Latin translation of the Greek word physis (φύσις), which originally related to the intrinsic characteristics that plants, animals, and other features of the world develop of their own accord. [3][4] The concept of nature as a whole, the physical universe , is one of several expansions of the original notion; [1] it began with certain core applications of the word φύσις by pre-Socratic philosophers (though this word had a dynamic dimension then, especially for Heraclitus), and has steadily gained currency ever since. During the advent of modern scientific method in the last several centuries, nature became the passive reality, organized and moved by divine laws. [5][6] With the Industrial revolution, nature increasingly became seen as the part of reality deprived from intentional intervention : it was hence considered as sacred by some traditions ( Rousseau, American transcendentalism) or a mere decorum for divine providence or human history ( Hegel , Marx ). However, a vitalist vision of nature, closer to the presocratic one, got reborn at the same time, especially after
Charles Darwin . [1]
Within the various uses of the word today, "nature" often refers to geology and wildlife . Nature can refer to the general realm of living plants and animals, and in some cases to the processes associated with inanimate objects—the way that particular types of things exist and change of their own accord, such as the weather and geology of the Earth . It is often taken to mean the " natural environment " or
wilderness —wild animals, rocks, forest, and in general those things that have not been substantially altered by human intervention, or which persist despite human intervention. For example, manufactured objects and human interaction generally are not considered part of nature, unless qualified as, for example, "human nature" or "the whole of nature". This more traditional concept of natural things that can still be found today implies a distinction between the natural and the artificial, with the artificial being understood as that which has been brought into being by a human
consciousness or a human mind . Depending on the particular context, the term "natural" might also be distinguished from the unnatural or the supernatura
View of the Earth , taken in 1972 by the crew of Apollo 17
Earth is the only planet known to support life, and its natural features are the subject of many fields of scientific research. Within the solar system , it is third closest to the sun; it is the largest terrestrial planet and the fifth largest overall. Its most prominent climatic features are its two large polar regions, two relatively narrow temperate zones, and a wide equatorial tropical to subtropical region. [7] Precipitation varies widely with location, from several metres of water per year to less than a millimetre. 71 percent of the Earth's surface is covered by salt-water oceans. The remainder consists of continents and islands, with most of the inhabited land in the Northern Hemisphere.
Earth has evolved through geological and biological processes that have left traces of the original conditions. The outer surface is divided into several gradually migrating
tectonic plates . The interior remains active, with a thick layer of plastic mantle and an iron-filled core that generates a magnetic field. This iron core is composed of a solid inner phase, and a fluid outer phase. Convective motion in the core generates electric currents through dynamo action, and these, in turn, generate the geomagnetic field.
The atmospheric conditions have been significantly altered from the original conditions by the presence of life-forms, [8] which create an ecological balance that stabilizes the surface conditions. Despite the wide regional variations in climate by latitude and other geographic factors, the long-term average global climate is quite stable during interglacial periods, [9] and variations of a degree or two of average global temperature have historically had major effects on the ecological balance, and on the actual geography of the Earth. [10]
[11]
Geology
Main article: Geology
Geology is the science and study of the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the earth. The field of geology encompasses the study of the composition, structure , physical properties , dynamics, and history of Earth materials , and the processes by which they are formed, moved, and changed. The field is a major
academic discipline, and is also important for
mineral and hydrocarbon extraction, knowledge about and mitigation of natural hazards , some
Geotechnical engineering fields, and understanding past climates and environments.
Plants and animals
Originally Aristotle divided all living things between plants, which generally do not move fast enough for humans to notice, and animals. In Linnaeus ' system, these became the kingdoms Vegetabilia (later Plantae) and
Animalia . Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae as originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms. However, these are still often considered plants in many contexts. Bacterial life is sometimes included in flora, [71][72] and some classifications use the term bacterial flora separately from plant flora .
Among the many ways of classifying plants are by regional floras , which, depending on the purpose of study, can also include fossil flora , remnants
of plant life from a previous era. People in many regions and countries take great pride in their individual arrays of characteristic flora, which can vary widely across the globe due to differences in climate and terrain .
Regional floras commonly are divided into categories such as native flora and agricultural and garden flora , the lastly mentioned of which are intentionally grown and cultivated. Some types of "native flora" actually have been introduced centuries ago by people migrating from one region or continent to another, and become an integral part of the native, or natural flora of the place to which they were introduced. This is an example of how human interaction with nature can blur the boundary of what is considered nature.
Another category of plant has historically been carved out for weeds . Though the term has fallen into disfavor among botanists as a formal way to categorize "useless" plants, the informal use of the word "weeds" to describe those plants that are deemed worthy of elimination is illustrative of the general tendency of people and societies to seek to alter or shape the course of nature. Similarly, animals are often categorized in ways such as
domestic , farm animals, wild animals, pests , etc. according to their relationship to human life.
Animals as a category have several characteristics that generally set them apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and usually multicellular (although see
Myxozoa ), which separates them from bacteria,
archaea , and most protists. They are
heterotrophic , generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae . They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls .
With a few exceptions—most notably the two
phyla consisting of sponges and placozoans —animals have bodies that are differentiated into
tissues . These include muscles , which are able to contract and control locomotion, and a
nervous system, which sends and processes signals. There is also typically an internal
digestive chamber. The eukaryotic cells possessed by all animals are surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of
collagen and elastic glycoproteins . This may be calcified to form structures like shells , bones , and spicules , a framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized during development and maturation, and which supports the complex anatomy required for mobility.
Human interrelationship
Despite their natural beauty, the secluded valleys along the Na Pali Coast in Hawaii are heavily modified by introduced invasive species such as She-oak
Although humans comprise only a minuscule proportion of the total living biomass on Earth, the human effect on nature is disproportionately large. Because of the extent of human influence, the boundaries between what humans regard as nature and "made environments" is not clear cut except at the extremes. Even at the extremes, the amount of natural environment that is free of discernible human influence is diminishing at an increasingly rapid pace.
The development of technology by the human race has allowed the greater exploitation of natural resources and has helped to alleviate some of the risk from natural hazards . In spite of this progress, however, the fate of human
civilization remains closely linked to changes in the environment. There exists a highly complex
feedback loop between the use of advanced technology and changes to the environment that are only slowly becoming understood. [73] Man-made threats to the Earth's natural environment include pollution, deforestation , and disasters such as oil spills. Humans have contributed to the extinction of many plants and animals.
Humans employ nature for both leisure and economic activities. The acquisition of natural resources for industrial use remains a sizable component of the world's economic system . [74][75] Some activities, such as hunting and fishing, are used for both sustenance and leisure, often by different people. Agriculture was first adopted around the 9th millennium BCE . Ranging from food production to energy, nature influences economic wealth.
Although early humans gathered uncultivated plant materials for food and employed the
medicinal properties of vegetation for healing, [76] most modern human use of plants is through agriculture . The clearance of large tracts of land for crop growth has led to a significant reduction in the amount available of
forestation and wetlands, resulting in the loss of habitat for many plant and animal species as well as increased erosion . [77]
Aesthetics and beauty
Aesthetically pleasing flowers
Beauty in nature has historically been a prevalent theme in art and books, filling large sections of libraries and bookstores. That nature has been depicted and celebrated by so much art, photography, poetry, and other literature shows the strength with which many people associate nature and beauty. Reasons why this association exists, and what the association consists of, are studied by the branch of philosophy called aesthetics. Beyond certain basic characteristics that many philosophers agree about to explain what is seen as beautiful, the opinions are virtually endless. [78] Nature and wildness have been important subjects in various eras of world history. An early tradition of landscape art began in China during the Tang Dynasty (618–907). The tradition of representing nature as it is became one of the aims of Chinese painting and was a significant influence in Asian art.
Although natural wonders are celebrated in the
Psalms and the Book of Job , wilderness portrayals in art became more prevalent in the 1800s, especially in the works of the Romantic movement . British artists John Constable and
J. M. W. Turner turned their attention to capturing the beauty of the natural world in their paintings. Before that, paintings had been primarily of religious scenes or of human beings. William Wordsworth's poetry described the wonder of the natural world, which had formerly been viewed as a threatening place. Increasingly the valuing of nature became an aspect of Western culture. [79] This artistic movement also coincided with the
Transcendentalist movement in the Western world. A common classical idea of beautiful art involves the word mimesis , the imitation of nature. Also in the realm of ideas about beauty in nature is that the perfect is implied through perfect mathematical forms and more generally by patterns in nature . As David Rothenburg writes, "The beautiful is the root of science and the goal of art, the highest possibility that humanity can ever hope to see". [80] :281
Matter and energy
The first few hydrogen atom electron orbitals shown as cross-sections with color-coded probability density
Main articles: Matter and Energy
Some fields of science see nature as matter in motion, obeying certain laws of nature which science seeks to understand. For this reason the most fundamental science is generally understood to be " physics"—the name for which is still recognizable as meaning that it is the " study of nature ".
Matter is commonly defined as the substance of which physical objects are composed. It constitutes the observable universe . The visible components of the universe are now believed to compose only 4.9 percent of the total mass. The remainder is believed to consist of 26.8 percent cold dark matter and 68.3 percent dark energy . [81] The exact arrangement of these components is still unknown and is under intensive investigation by physicists.
The behaviour of matter and energy throughout the observable universe appears to follow well-defined physical laws . These laws have been employed to produce cosmological models that successfully explain the structure and the evolution of the universe we can observe. The mathematical expressions of the laws of physics employ a set of twenty
physical constants[82] that appear to be static across the observable universe. [83] The values of these constants have been carefully measured, but the reason for their specific values remains a mystery.
Beyond Earth
Main articles: Outer space, Universe, and
Extraterrestrial life
Planets of the Solar System (Sizes to scale, distances and illumination not to scale)
NGC 4414 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation Coma Berenices about 56,000 light-years in diameter and approximately 60 million light-years from Earth
Outer space, also simply called space, refers to the relatively empty regions of the Universe outside the atmospheres of celestial bodies.
Outer space is used to distinguish it from
airspace (and terrestrial locations). There is no discrete boundary between Earth's atmosphere and space, as the atmosphere gradually attenuates with increasing altitude. Outer space within the Solar System is called
interplanetary space, which passes over into
interstellar space at what is known as the
heliopause .
Outer space is sparsely filled with several dozen types of organic molecules discovered to date by microwave spectroscopy , blackbody radiation left over from the Big Bang and the origin of the universe, and cosmic rays, which include ionized atomic nuclei and various
subatomic particles . There is also some gas,
plasma and dust , and small meteors . Additionally, there are signs of human life in outer space today, such as material left over from previous manned and unmanned launches which are a potential hazard to spacecraft. Some of this debris re-enters the atmosphere periodically.
Although Earth is the only body within the solar system known to support life, evidence suggests that in the distant past the planet
Mars possessed bodies of liquid water on the surface. [84] For a brief period in Mars' history, it may have also been capable of forming life. At present though, most of the water remaining on Mars is frozen. If life exists at all on Mars, it is most likely to be located underground where liquid water can still exist. [85]
Conditions on the other terrestrial planets,
Mercury and Venus , appear to be too harsh to support life as we know it. But it has been conjectured that Europa, the fourth-largest moon of Jupiter, may possess a sub-surface ocean of liquid water and could potentially host life. [86]
Astronomers have started to discover extrasolar Earth analogs – planets that lie in the habitable zone of space surrounding a star , and therefore could possibly host life as we know it. [87]
See also
Force of nature
Human nature
Natural history
Naturalism
Natural landscape
Natural law
Natural resource
Natural science
Natural theology
Nature reserve
Nature timeline
Nature versus nurture
Nature worship
Naturism
Rewilding
Media:
Natural History, by Pliny the Elder
Nature , by Ralph Waldo Emerson
Nature , a prominent scientific journal
National Wildlife , a publication of the National Wildlife Federation
Nature (TV series)
Natural World (TV series)
Organizations:
The Nature Conservancy
Nature Detectives
Philosophy:
Mother Nature
Nature (philosophy)
Naturalism , any of several philosophical stances, typically those descended from
materialism and pragmatism that do not distinguish the supernatural from nature; [88] this includes the methodological naturalism of natural science, which makes the
methodological assumption that observable events in nature are explained only by natural causes, without assuming either the existence or non-existence of the supernatural
Balance of nature (biological fallacy), a discredited concept of natural equilibrium in predator–prey dynamics
Notes and references
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Ducarme, Frédéric; Couvet, Denis (2020).
"What does 'nature' mean?" . Palgrave Communications. Springer Nature . 6 (14). doi: 10.1057/s41599-020-0390-y .. The word φύσις, while first used in connection with a plant in Homer, occurs early in Greek philosophy, and in several senses. Generally, these senses match rather well the current senses in which the English word nature is used, as confirmed by Guthrie, W.K.C. Presocratic Tradition from Parmenides to Democritus (volume 2 of his History of Greek Philosophy ), Cambridge UP, 1965.
4. ^ The first known use of physis was by
Homer in reference to the intrinsic qualities of a plant: ὣς ἄρα φωνήσας πόρε φάρμακον ἀργεϊφόντης ἐκ γαίης ἐρύσας, καί μοι φύσιν αὐτοῦ ἔδειξε. (So saying, Argeiphontes [=Hermes] gave me the herb, drawing it from the ground, and showed me its nature .) Odyssey 10.302–03 (ed. A.T. Murray). (The word is dealt with thoroughly in Liddell and Scott's Greek Lexicon Archived March 5, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.) For later but still very early Greek uses of the term, see earlier note.
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Further reading
Ducarme, Frédéric; Couvet, Denis (2020).
"What does 'nature' mean?" . Palgrave Communications. Springer Nature . 6 (14).
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Farber, Paul Lawrence (2000), Finding Order in Nature: The Naturalist Tradition from Linnaeus to E. O. Wilson . Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore.
Worster, D. (1994). Nature's Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas . Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press .
Emerson, Ralph W. (1836). Nature . Boston: James Munroe & Co.
Naddaf, Gerard (2006). The Greek Concept of Nature . Albany: SUNY Press.
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Reionization Matter-dominated
era Accelerated expansion Water Single-celled life Photosynthesis Multicellular
life Vertebrates
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Water Single-celled
life Photosynthesis Eukaryotes Multicellular
life Arthropods
Molluscs Plants Dinosaurs Mammals Flowers Birds Primates
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